Avcı, S., Özgenel, M., & Avcu, A. (2025). The importance of family participation in homework: understanding the relationship between student homework behaviors and academic achievement by school level. Social Psychology of Education, 28(6), 255–278. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-024-09964-6

Baoyan, Y., & Minggang, W. (2015). How father’s education and economic capital impact academic performance—An analysis based on the mediating effect and moderating effect. Chinese Education & Society, 48(6), 412–432. https://doi.org/10.1080/10611932.2015.1119508

Barger, M. M., Kim, E. M., Kuncel, N. R., & Pomerantz, E. M. (2019). The relation between parents’ involvement in children’s schooling and children’s adjustment: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 145(9), 855–890. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000201

Basrowi, B., & Siti, J. (2010). Analisis kondisi sosial ekonomi dan tingkat pendidikan masyarakat Desa Srigading, Kecamatan Labuhan Maringgai, Kabupaten Lampung Timur [An analysis of the socio-economic conditions and education levels of the community in Srigading Village, Labuhan Maringgai District, Lampung Timur Regency]. Jurnal Ekonomi Dan Pendidikan, 7(1), 58–81. https://doi.org/10.21831/jep.v7i1.577

Bignardi, G., Mareva, S., & Astle, D. E. (2024). Parental socioeconomic status weakly predicts specific cognitive and academic skills beyond general cognitive ability. Developmental Science, 27(July), e13451. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.13451

Boonk, L. M., Gijselaers, H. J. M., Ritzen, H., & Brand-Gruwel, S. (2018). A review of the relationship between parental involvement indicators and academic achievement. Educational Research Review, 24(May 2017), 10–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2018.02.001

Boonk, L. M., Ritzen, H., Gijselaers, H. J. M., & Brand-Gruwel, S. (2021). Stimulating parental involvement in vocational education and training (VET): A case study based on learning histories of teachers, principals, students, and their parents. Teaching and Teacher Education, 100, 103279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2021.103279

Bourdieu, P. (2002). The forms of capital. In N. W. Biggart (Ed.), Readings in economic sociology (pp. 280–291). Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470755679.ch15

Caro, D. H. (2018). Socio-economic gaps in subject interest: the mediating role of parental cognitive involvement. Large-Scale Assessments in Education, 6(13), 1–38. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40536-018-0067-9

Chaplin, J. P. (2010). Dictionary of psychology (pp. 1–528). Random House Publishing Group.

Cheung, C. S.-S., & Pomerantz, E. M. (2011). Parents’ involvement in children’s learning in the United States and China: Implications for children’s academic and emotional adjustment. Child Development, 82(3), 932–950. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01582.x

Cimon-Paquet, C., Gaudet, O., Verner-Filion, J., & Véronneau, M.-H. (2023). Perceived parental monitoring and school motivation during adolescence: a bidirectional model. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 38(2), 819–839. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-022-00633-w

Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2005). Research methods in education (5th ed.). Taylor & Francis Group.

Coleman, J. S. (1988). Social capital in the creation of human capital. American Journal of Sociology, 94, S95–S120. https://doi.org/10.1086/228943

Damm, A. P., Mattana, E., & Nielsen, H. S. (2022). Effects of school displacement on academic achievement and wellbeing of ethnic minorities. Labour Economics, 79, 102266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2022.102266

Day, E., & Dotterer, A. M. (2018). Parental involvement and adolescent academic outcomes: Exploring differences in beneficial strategies across racial/ethnic groups. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 47(6), 1332–1349. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-018-0853-2

Desimone, L. (1999). Linking parent involvement with student achievement: Do race and income matter? The Journal of Educational Research, 93(1), 11–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220679909597625

Duan, W., Guan, Y., & Bu, H. (2018). The effect of parental involvement and socioeconomic status on junior school students’ academic achievement and school behavior in China. Frontiers in Psychology, 9(JUN), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00952

Eker, S., & Yildizli, H. (2025). The effect of perceived parental academic involvement on achievement: The mediating role of academic motivation. Psychology in the Schools, 62(11), 4740–4759. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.70036

Ercegovac, I. R., Maglica, T., & Ljubetić, M. (2021). The relationship between self-esteem, self-efficacy, family and life satisfaction, loneliness and academic achievement during adolescence. Croatian Journal of Education, 23(SP.ED.1), 65–83. https://doi.org/10.15516/cje.v23i0.4049

Erdem, C., & Kaya, M. (2020). A meta-analysis of the effect of parental involvement on students’ academic achievement. Journal of Learning for Development, 7(3), 367–383. https://doi.org/10.56059/jl4d.v7i3.417

Erdem, C., & Kaya, M. (2023). Socioeconomic status and wellbeing as predictors of students’ academic achievement: evidence from a developing country. Journal of Psychologists and Counsellors in Schools, 33(2), 202–220. https://doi.org/10.1017/jgc.2021.10

Fang, S., Huang, J., Wu, S., Jin, M., Kim, Y., & Henrichsen, C. (2020). Family assets, parental expectation, and child educational achievement in China: A validation of mediation analyses. Children and Youth Services Review, 112(February), 104875. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.104875

Fatimmaningrum, A. S. (2021). Parental involvement and academic achievement: A meta-analysis. Psychological Research and Intervention, 4(2), 57–67. https://doi.org/10.21831/pri.v4i2.45507

Finch, H., & Finch, M. E. H. (2022). The relationship of National, school, and student socioeconomic status with academic achievement: A model for Programme for International Student Assessment Reading and Mathematics scores. Frontiers in Education, 7(April), 857451. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2022.857451

Freund, A., Schaedel, B., Azaiza, F., Boehm, A., & Lazarowitz, R. H. (2018). Parental involvement among Jewish and Arab parents: Patterns and contextual predictors. Children and Youth Services Review, 85, 194–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.12.018

Gan, Y., & Bilige, S. (2019). Parental involvement in home-based education and children’s academic achievement in China. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 47(12), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.8491

Gonzalez-DeHass, A. R., Willems, P. P., & Holbein, M. F. D. (2005). Examining the relationship between parental involvement and student motivation. Educational Psychology Review, 17(2), 99–123. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-005-3949-7

Gubbins, V., & Otero, G. (2020). Parental involvement and low-SES children’s academic achievement in early elementary school: new evidence from Chile. Educational Studies, 46(5), 548–569. https://doi.org/10.1080/03055698.2019.1620691

Guilford, J. P. (1956). The structure of intellect. Psychological Bulletin, 53(4), 267–293. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0040755

Hill, N. E. (2022). Parental involvement in education: Toward a more inclusive understanding of parents’ role construction. Educational Psychologist, 57(4), 309–314. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2022.2129652

Holzer, J., Maximino-Pinheiro, M., & Borst, G. (2025). SES and academic achievement are (not always) related: Profiles of student SES, academic achievement and their links to socio-emotional, cognitive, and metacognitive characteristics. Learning and Instruction, 95, 102055. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2024.102055

Hsieh, M. (2023). The relationships between home-based parental involvement, study habits and academic achievement among adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 43(2), 194–215. https://doi.org/10.1177/02724316221101527

Hu, B., & Wu, W. (2020). Parental support in education and social integration of migrant children in urban public schools in China. Cities, 106(May), 102870. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2020.102870

Indrawati, E. S. (2015). Status sosial ekonomi dan intensitas komunikasi keluarga pada ibu rumah tangga di Panggung Kidul Semarang Utara [Socioeconomic status and the intensity of family communication among housewives in Panggung Kidul, North Semarang]. Jurnal Psikologi, 14(1), 52–57. https://doi.org/10.14710/jpu.14.1.52-57

Jeynes, W. H. (2007). The relationship between parental involvement and urban secondary school student academic achievement: A meta-analysis. Urban Education, 42(1), 82–110. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085906293818

Jeynes, W. H. (2024). A meta-analysis: The relationship between the parental expectations component of parental Involvement with students’ academic achievement. Urban Education, 59(1), 63–95. https://doi.org/10.1177/00420859211073892

Kang, L., Li, C., Chen, D., & Bao, X. (2024). Parental involvement, academic self-efficacy, and depression on academic performance among Chinese students during COVID-19 pandemic. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 17, 201–216. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S447485

Kantova, K. (2024). Parental involvement and education outcomes of their children. Applied Economics, 56(48), 5683–5698. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2024.2314569

Karbach, J., Gottschling, J., Spengler, M., Hegewald, K., & Spinath, F. M. (2013). Parental involvement and general cognitive ability as predictors of domain-specific academic achievement in early adolescence. Learning and Instruction, 23, 43–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2012.09.004

Khuram, W., Wang, Y., Anjum, M. A., & Khalid, A. (2022). Factors affecting academic performance of international students in China: A theory of reasoned action approach. Croatian Journal of Education, 24(3), 831–859. https://doi.org/10.15516/cje.v24i3.4317

Khusaini, K., & Muvera, M. (2020). Prestasi belajar dan karakteristik orang tua: Studi perbandingan sekolah menengah atas perkotaan-pedesaan [Academic achievement and parental characteristics: A comparative study of urban and rural high schools]. Jurnal Pendidikan Ekonomi Undiksha, 12(2), 296–310. https://doi.org/10.23887/jjpe.v12i2.28343

Khusaini, K., Sentosa, B. M., & Putro, T. R. (2023). Fiscal transfer policies and road infrastructure reduce income inequality in rural-urban areas. Etikonomi, 22(2), 333–356. https://doi.org/10.15408/etk.v22i2.28618 Fiscal

Kovács, K., Oláh, Á. J., & Pusztai, G. (2024). The role of parental involvement in academic and sports achievement. Heliyon, 10(2), e24290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e24290

Krejcie, R. V, & Morgan, D. W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 30(3), 607–610. https://doi.org/10.1177/001316447003000308

Lam, S. M., & Zhou, Y. (2022). SES-achievement gaps in East Asia: Evidence from PISA 2003–2018. Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 31(6), 691–710. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-021-00620-7

Lara, L., & Saracostti, M. (2019). Effect of parental involvement on children’s academic achievement in Chile. Frontiers in Psychology, 10(JUN), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01464

LaRocque, M., Kleiman, I., & Darling, S. M. (2011). Parental involvement: The missing link in school achievement. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 55(3), 115–122. https://doi.org/10.1080/10459880903472876

Li, A. (2024). Parenting approaches, parental involvement, and academic achievement in US elementary schools. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 45(5), 798–819. https://doi.org/10.1080/01425692.2024.2362819

Li, X., Yang, H., Wang, H., & Jia, J. (2020). Family socioeconomic status and home-based parental involvement: A mediation analysis of parental attitudes and expectations. Children and Youth Services Review, 116(May), 105111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105111

Li, Y., Hu, T., Ge, T., & Auden, E. (2019). The relationship between home-based parental involvement, parental educational expectation and academic performance of middle school students in mainland China: A mediation analysis of cognitive ability. International Journal of Educational Research, 97(June), 139–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2019.08.003

Liu, J., Peng, P., & Luo, L. (2020). The relation between family socioeconomic status and academic achievement in China: A meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 32, 49–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019-09494-0

Liu, L., Lv, Y., Yan-wei, L., & Li, Y. (2013). The effects of father’s involvement and parenting on children’s early social skills. Psychological Development and Education, 29(1), 38–45. http://www.devpsy.com.cn

Liu, X., Liu, J., Demmans Epp, C., & Cui, Y. (2025). Exploring the effect of parental involvement on student engagement and academic performance using process data from learning management system. Educational Technology Research and Development, 73(2), 1071–1092. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-024-10440-3

Lv, B., Lv, L., Yan, Z., & Luo, L. (2019). The relationship between parental involvement in education and children’s academic/emotion profiles: A person-centered approach. Children and Youth Services Review, 100, 175–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.03.003

Mägi, K., Lerkkanen, M.-K., Poikkeus, A.-M., Rasku-Puttonen, H., & Nurmi, J.-E. (2011). The cross-lagged relations between children’s academic skill development, task-avoidance, and parental beliefs about success. Learning and Instruction, 21(5), 664–675. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2011.03.001

Maimad, M. T., Dupa, H. J. P., & Villegas, J. P. (2023). Parental involvement and academic achievement: Keys to translating no poverty and quality education SDGs in Philippine peripheral communities. Journal of Teacher Education for Sustainability, 25(2), 76–88. https://doi.org/10.2478/jtes-2023-0017

Maksum, M. N. R., Ihsan, M. Z. N., Vambudi, V. N., Rifai, A., Nisa, A. T., Alauddin, M. B., & Al Irfani, S. Z. (2025). Evaluating learning motivation as a mediator between family environment and academic achievement: Evidence from Indonesian Secondary students. Jurnal Pendidikan Progresif, 15(3), 1905–1929. https://doi.org/10.23960/jpp.v15i3.pp1905-1929

Mappadang, A., Khusaini, K., Sinaga, M., & Elizabeth, E. (2022). Academic interest determines the academic performance of undergraduate accounting students: Multinomial logit evidence. Cogent Business and Management, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2022.2101326

Maslowsky, J., Jager, J., & Hemken, D. (2015). Estimating and interpreting latent variable interactions: A tutorial for applying the latent moderated structural equations method. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 39(1), 87–96. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025414552301

McDowell, K., Jack, A., & Compton, M. (2018). Parent involvement in Pre-Kindergarten and the effects on student achievement. The Advocate, 23(6), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.4148/2637-4552.1004

OECD. (2019). PISA 2018 Results (Volume II): Where All Students Can Succeed. In OECD Publishing: II. https://doi.org/10.1787/b5fd1b8f-en

OECD. (2020). PISA 2018 Results (Volume IV): Are Students Smart About Money? IV (M. Achiron, Ed.). OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/48ebd1ba-en

Ogg, J., & Anthony, C. J. (2019). Parent involvement and children’s externalizing behavior: Exploring longitudinal bidirectional effects across gender. Journal of School Psychology, 73, 21–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2019.02.002

Ogg, J., & Anthony, C. J. (2020). Process and context: Longitudinal effects of the interactions between parental involvement, parental warmth, and SES on academic achievement. Journal of School Psychology, 78(November 2019), 96–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2019.11.004

Otani, M. (2020). Parental involvement and academic achievement among elementary and middle school students. Asia Pacific Education Review, 21(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-019-09614-z

Parmer, P., & Nathans, L. (2022). Parental warmth and parent involvement: their relationships to academic achievement and behavior problems in school. Societies, 12(161), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.3390/ soc12060161

Pilcher, J. K. (1994). The value-driven meaning of grades. Educational Assessment, 2(1), 69–88. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326977ea0201

Poon, K. (2020). The impact of socioeconomic status on parental factors in promoting academic achievement in Chinese children. International Journal of Educational Development, 75(February), 102175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2020.102175

Prima, F. W., & Fikry, Z. (2021). Pengaruh keterlibatan orang tua terhadap performa akademik siswa kelas 2 jurusan IPS di SMAN 4 Kota Sungai Penuh [The influence of parental involvement on the academic performance of 11th-grade students in the social sciences stream at SMAN 4, Sungai Penu]. Jurnal Pendidikan Tambusai, 5(2), 3998–4006. https://doi.org/10.31004/jptam.v5i2.1474

Rakesh, D., Sadikova, E., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2025). Associations among socioeconomic disadvantage, longitudinal changes in within-network connectivity, and academic outcomes in the ABCD study. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 74, 101587. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2025.101587

Ramdahl, M. E., Jensen, S. S., Borgund, E., Samdal, O., & Torsheim, T. (2018). Family wealth and parent–child relationships. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27(5), 1534–1543. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-1003-2

Reardon, S. F., & Portilla, X. A. (2016). Recent trends in income, racial, and ethnic school readiness gaps at Kindergarten entry. AERA Open, 2(3), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858416657343

Rumbaoa, L. R. M., Vone, G., Jose, O. S., & Sanchez, J. A. L. (2022). Impact of socioeconomic status and parental involvement in students’ academic performance of the undergraduate students in a comprehensive university during the COVID-19 pandemic. Universal Journal of Sciences and Technology, 1(2), 197–221. https://doi.org/10.11111/ujost.v1i2.81

Sentosa, B. M. (2023). Does parental income and education improve academic achievement?: A case of public high school students at Tangerang Municipality. Jurnal Pendidikan Progresif, 13(2), 387–403. https://doi.org/10.23960/jpp.v13.i2.202318

Sentosa, B. M., Khusaini, K., Latuconsina, H., & Kamil, M. (2024). The role of school quality and students’ health on academic achievement: A binary probit study. Jurnal Pendidikan Progresif, 14(2), 1023–1044. https://doi.org/10.23960/jpp.v14.i2.202475

Sirin, S. R. (2005). Socioeconomic status and academic achievement: A meta-analytic review of research. Review of Educational Research, 75(3), 417–453. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543075003417

Song, Q., & Tan, C. Y. (2025). The association between family socioeconomic status and academic achievement: new estimates using three-level meta-analysis of PISA 2009–2018 data. Comparative Education, Advance on, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/03050068.2025.2545659

Stankov, L., & Lee, J. (2025). Non-cognitive predictors: Evidence and implications for academic achievement and cognitive processing. Journal of Intelligence, 13(10), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13100133

Suna, E., & Özer, M. (2021). The achievement gap between schools and relationship between achievement and socioeconomic status in Turkey. Journal of Measurement and Evaluation in Education and Psychology, 12(1), 54–70. https://doi.org/10.21031/epod.860431

Tan, C. Y., Cheung, H. S., & Lee, S. M. S. (2026). Parental involvement, parenting styles, and children’s academic outcomes: A second-order, three-level meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 96(4), 1287–1327. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543251346792

Tan, C. Y., Lyu, M., & Peng, B. (2020). Academic benefits from parental involvement are stratified by parental socioeconomic status: A meta-analysis. Parenting, 20(4), 241–287. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295192.2019.1694836

Toren, N. K. (2025). Parents-teachers’ trust relationship and student self-esteem and academic achievement: A three sources multiple-step analysis. Journal of Psychologists and Counsellors in Schools, 35(1), 47–65. https://doi.org/10.1177/20556365251319868

van Zwieten, A., Teixeira-Pinto, A., Lah, S., Nassar, N., Craig, J. C., & Wong, G. (2021). Socioeconomic status during childhood and academic achievement in secondary school. Academic Pediatrics, 21(5), 838–848. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2020.10.013

Vellymalay, S. K. N. (2012). The disadvantaged: Parental involvement at home and low school performance. International Journal of Asian Social Science, 7(1), 1162–1172. https://archive.aessweb.com/index.php/5007/article/view/2295

Wang, W., Dong, Y., Liu, X., Bai, Y., & Zhang, L. (2020). The effect of parents’ education on the academic and non-cognitive outcomes of their children: Evidence from China. Children and Youth Services Review, 117(June), 105307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105307

Weiner, B., & Peter, N. (1973). A cognitive-developmental analysis of achievement and moral judgments. Developmental Psychology, 9(3), 290–309. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0034924

Wilder, S. (2014). Effects of parental involvement on academic achievement: a meta-synthesis. Educational Review, 66(3), 377–397. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2013.780009

Williams, T. T., & Sánchez, B. (2013). Identifying and decreasing barriers to parent involvement for Inner-City parents. Youth & Society, 45(1), 54–74. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X11409066

Won, S., & Yu, S. L. (2018). Relations of perceived parental autonomy support and control with adolescents’ academic time management and procrastination. Learning and Individual Differences, 61, 205–215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2017.12.001

Yigiter, M. S. (2025). The effect of socioeconomic status on academic achievement: A big data study across countries and time with integrative data analysis. Plos One, 20(10), e0335485. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335485

York, T. T., Gibson, C., & Rankin, S. (2015). Defining and measuring academic success. Practical Assessment, Research and Evaluation, 20(5), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.7275/hz5x-tx03

Yulianti, K., Denessen, E., Droop, M., & Veerman, G. J. (2022). School efforts to promote parental involvement: the contributions of school leaders and teachers. Educational Studies, 48(1), 98–113. https://doi.org/10.1080/03055698.2020.1740978

Yuxiao, W., & Chao, H. (2017). School socioeconomic segregation and educational expectations of students in China’s Junior High Schools. Social Sciences in China, 38(3), 112–126. https://doi.org/10.1080/02529203.2017.1339449

Zhang, S., & Wu, H. (2025). School leadership, parental involvement, and student achievement: A comparative analysis of principal and teacher perspectives. Education Sciences, 15(6), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15060767

Zhang, Y., Hainan, L., Feng, F., & Wu, X. (2025). Digital economy, education, human capital and urban–rural income disparity. Finance Research Letters, 71, 106464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.frl.2024.106464

Zhao, N., Valcke, M., Desoete, A., & Verhaeghe, J. P. (2012). The quadratic relationship between socioeconomic status and learning performance in China by multilevel analysis: Implications for policies to foster education equity. International Journal of Educational Development, 32(3), 412–422. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2011.08.004