Email this article When Learning Becomes a Game: The Impact of Ladders War in Game-Based Learning on Students' Mathematical Critical Thinking Skills
Mathematical critical thinking remains a persistent challenge in elementary education globally, as TIMSS 2023 findings show that only a small proportion of fourth-grade students worldwide reached the High and Advanced benchmarks in mathematics, while empirical evidence on the effectiveness of game-based approaches at the primary level remains limited. This study examined how the Game-Based Learning (GBL) model, assisted by Ladders War media, influenced fourth-grade students' mathematical critical-thinking skills in number patterns, a topic fundamental to algebraic reasoning that remains persistently difficult for young learners. Employing a quasi-experimental Nonequivalent Control Group Design, 50 students (aged 9–10; 25 males, 25 females) from two intact classes in Bekasi, Indonesia, participated. The study was conducted over four 90-minute sessions: the pretest was administered at the beginning of the first session, followed by the first treatment, two additional treatment sessions, and a posttest in the fourth session. Critical thinking was assessed using a five-item expert-validated essay test (reliability = 0.74) measuring analysis, inference, evaluation, and explanation. ANCOVA with pretest scores as the covariate yielded a large effect size (η²p = 0.217) and a significant between-group difference (F = 13.013, p < .001), with an adjusted mean difference of 13.132 points (95% CI [5.809, 20.455]). The GBL group achieved a higher learning gain (N-Gain = 0.56, moderate) than the control group (N-Gain = 0.33, moderate). These findings suggest that the GBL model with Ladders War media effectively supports the development of mathematical critical thinking among elementary school students. Theoretically, this study reinforces the use of GBL to foster higher-order thinking, while practically offering an innovative instructional alternative for mathematics teachers, with broader implications for mathematics education in developing-country contexts.
Keywords: game-based learning, mathematical critical thinking, ladders war.
Alotaibi, M. S. (2024). Game-based learning in early childhood education: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1307881
Anggoro, B. S., Dewantara, A. H., Suherman, S., Muhammad, R. R., & Saraswati, S. (2024). Effect of game-based learning on students’ mathematics higher-order thinking skills: A meta-analysis. Revista de Psicodidáctica, 30(1), 500158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psicoe.2024.500158
Azizah, F. K., & Fidrayani. (2024). The influence of the use of educational game learning media “Snake and Ladder” on mathematics learning outcomes elementary school students. At-Taqaddum, 16(2), 93–107. https://journal.walisongo.ac.id/index.php/attaqaddum/article/view/21896
Ballance, O. J. (2024). Sampling and randomisation in experimental and quasi-experimental CALL studies: Issues and recommendations for design, reporting, review, and interpretation. ReCALL, 36(1), 58–71. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0958344023000162
Barz, N., Benick, M., Dörrenbächer-Ulrich, L., & Perels, F. (2024). The effect of digital game-based learning interventions on cognitive, metacognitive, and affective-motivational learning outcomes in school: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 94(2), 193–227. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543231167795
Cezarotto, M. A., Martinez, P. N., Torres Castillo, R. C., Stanford, T., Engledowl, C., Degardin, G., & Chamberlin, B. (2024). Open-ended mathematics learning: Implications from the design of a sandbox game. International Journal of Game-Based Learning, 14(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJGBL.337795
Cheng, Y., Lai, C., Chen, Y., Wang, W., Huang, Y., & Wu, T. (2023). Enhancing student’s computational thinking skills with student-generated questions strategy in a game-based learning platform. Computers & Education, 200, 104794. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2023.104794
Christopoulos, A., Mystakidis, S., Kurczaba, J., Laakso, M.-J., & Stylios, C. (2024). Is immersion in 3D virtual games associated with mathematical ability improvement in game-based learning? International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 22(7), 1479–1499. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-023-10440-4
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203771587
Dan, N. N., Trung, L. T. B. T., Nga, N. T., & Dung, T. M. (2024). Digital game-based learning in mathematics education at primary school level: A systematic literature review. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 20(4), em2423. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/14377
Debrenti, E. (2024). Game-based learning experiences in primary mathematics education. Frontiers in Education, 9, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2024.1331312
Dienes, Z. P. (1963). On the learning of mathematics. The Arithmetic Teacher, 10(3), 115–126. https://doi.org/10.5951/AT.10.3.0115
Facione, P. A. (2011). Critical thinking: What it is and why it counts. Insight Assessment. https://www.insightassessment.com/CT-Resources/Teaching-For-and-About-Critical-Thinking/Critical-Thinking-What-It-Is-and-Why-It-Counts/Critical-Thinking-What-It-Is-and-Why-It-Counts-PDF
Guilford, J. P. (1956). Fundamental statistics in psychology and education (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
Hake, R. R. (1998). Interactive-engagement versus traditional methods: A six-thousand-student survey of mechanics test data for introductory physics courses. American Journal of Physics, 66(1), 64–74. https://doi.org/10.1119/1.18809
Halidah, F., Aini, I. I. N., Ernawati, N., Juhaeni, J., Faizah, L., & Safaruddin, S. (2024). Pengembangan media pembelajaran matematika berbasis permainan ular tangga untuk meningkatkan hasil belajar siswa [Development of mathematics learning media based on the snakes and ladders game to improve student learning outcomes]. Journal of Instructional and Development Researches, 4(2), 64–74. https://doi.org/10.53621/jider.v4i2.306
IEA. (2023). TIMSS 2023 international results in mathematics and science. https://timss2023.org/results/
Jannah, R., Soraya, R. A., Suriansyah, A., & Cinantya, C. (2024). Kemampuan berpikir kritis dalam pembelajaran matematika terhadap hasil belajar di sekolah dasar [Critical thinking skills in mathematics learning on learning outcomes in elementary schools]. MARAS: Jurnal Penelitian Multidisiplin, 2(4), 1991–1998. https://doi.org/10.60126/maras.v2i4.550
Klooger, M. (2026). More than fun and games: Teaching mathematics through games. Mathematics Teacher Education and Development, 28(1). https://mted.merga.net.au/index.php/mted/article/view/1348
Koo, T. K., & Li, M. Y. (2016). A guideline of selecting and reporting intraclass correlation coefficients for reliability research. Journal of Chiropractic Medicine, 15(2), 155–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcm.2016.02.012
Lakens, D. (2013). Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science: A practical primer for t-tests and ANOVAs. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 863. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863
Lüdtke, O., & Robitzsch, A. (2025). ANCOVA versus change score for the analysis of two-wave data. The Journal of Experimental Education, 93(2), 363–395. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.2023.2246187
Mao, W., Cui, Y., Chiu, M. M., & Lei, H. (2022). Effects of game-based learning on students’ critical thinking: A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 59(8), 1682–1708. https://doi.org/10.1177/07356331221100740
Maula, N. F., Suryadi, D., & Jupri, A. (2024). A systematic literature review: Generalization in solving number pattern problems. Jurnal Pendidikan MIPA, 25(2), 701–711. https://doi.org/10.23960/jpmipa/v25i2.pp701-711
Monteleone, C., Miller, J., & Warren, E. (2023). Conceptualising critical mathematical thinking in young students. Mathematics Education Research Journal, 35, 339–359. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13394-023-00445-1
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (2000). Principles and standards for school mathematics.
Patterson, J. M. (2024). Repurposing video games as discussion tools. International Journal of Game-Based Learning, 14(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJGBL.349589
Plass, J. L., Homer, B. D., & Kinzer, C. K. (2015). Foundations of game-based learning. Educational Psychologist, 50(4), 258–283. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2015.1122533
Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2006). The content validity index: Are you sure you know what’s being reported? Critique and recommendations. Research in Nursing & Health, 29(5), 489–497. https://doi.org/10.1002/nur.20147
Pramasdyahsari, A. S., Setyawati, R. D., Aini, S. N., Nusuki, U., Arum, J. P., Astutik, I. D., Widodo, W., Zuliah, N., & Salmah, U. (2023). Fostering students’ mathematical critical thinking skills on number patterns through digital book STEM PjBL. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 19(7). https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/13342
Putra, L. D., Arlinsyah, N. D., Ridho, F. R., Syafiqa, A. N., & Annisa, K. (2024). Pemanfaatan Wordwall pada model game based learning terhadap digitalisasi pendidikan sekolah dasar [Utilization of Wordwall in game-based learning models for the digitalization of elementary school education]. Jurnal Dimensi Pendidikan dan Pembelajaran, 12(1), 81–95. https://doi.org/10.24269/dpp.v12i1.8894
Rohman, A. D., & Khaliza, T. N. (2025). Inovasi pembelajaran abad ke-21 melalui media Baamboozle: Upaya meningkatkan keterampilan berpikir kritis dan kolaboratif pada peserta didik sekolah dasar [21st century learning innovation through Baamboozle media: Efforts to improve critical and collaborative thinking skills in elementary school students]. Journal of Elementary Education Research, 1(2), 98–106. https://doi.org/10.70162/jeer.v1i2.38
Sukmawati, S., & Arifanti, D. R. (2022). Perbandingan antara minat belajar matematika siswa dalam kelas yang berjumlah besar dengan berjumlah kecil [Comparison between students' interest in learning mathematics in large and small classes]. Pedagogy: Jurnal Pendidikan Matematika, 7(1), 70–81. https://doi.org/10.30605/pedagogy.v7i1.1802
Thornhill-Miller, B., Camarda, A., Mercier, M., Burkhardt, J.-M., Morisseau, T., Bourgeois-Bougrine, S., Vinchon, F., El Hayek, S., Augereau-Landais, M., Mourey, F., Feybesse, C., Sundquist, D., & Lubart, T. (2023). Creativity, critical thinking, communication, and collaboration: Assessment, certification, and promotion of 21st century skills for the future of work and education. Journal of Intelligence, 11(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11030054
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes (M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman, Eds.). Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvjf9vz4
Wardani, M. S., & Himmah, W. I. (2026). Traditional game-based learning for mathematics in elementary school: A systematic literature review. Desimal: Jurnal Matematika, 9(2), 228–254. https://doi.org/10.24042/djm.v9i2.31699
Widiastika, N., Kartika, H., & Hanifah, H. (2023). Pengaruh model pembelajaran CORE terhadap kemampuan koneksi matematis siswa: Studi quasi eksperimen [The effect of the CORE learning model on students' mathematical connection abilities: A quasi-experimental study]. Journal of Research in Science and Mathematics Education, 2(3), 173–185. https://doi.org/10.56855/jrsme.v2i3.490
Refbacks
- There are currently no refbacks.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
View My Stats